axolotl

Axolotl

Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Amphibia
Order:
Caudata
Family:
Ambystomatidae
Genus:
Ambystoma
Species:
A. mexicanum
Binomial name
Ambystoma mexicanum(Shaw, 1789)

The Axolotl (or ajolote) (Ambystoma mexicanum) is the best-known of the Mexican neotenic mole salamanders belonging to the Tiger Salamander complex. Larvae of this species fail to undergo metamorphosis, so the adults remain aquatic and gilled. The species originates from the lake underlying Mexico City. Axolotls are used extensively in scientific research due to their ability to regenerate most body parts, ease of breeding, and large embryos. They are commonly kept as pets in the United States, Great Britain (under the spelling Axlotl), Australia, Japan (where they are sold under the name Wooper Rooper , and other countries.
Axolotls should not be confused with waterdogs, the larval stage of the closely related Tiger Salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum and Ambystoma mavortium), which is widespread in much of North America which also occasionally become neotenic, nor with mudpuppies (Necturus spp.), fully aquatic salamanders which are not closely related to the axolotl but which bear a resemblance.

Description
A sexually-mature adult axolotl, at age 18–24 months, ranges in length from 15–45 cm (6–18 inches), although a size close to 23 cm (9 inches) is most common and greater than 30 cm (12 inches) is rare. Axolotls possess features typical of salamander larvae, including external gills and a caudal fin extending from behind the head to the vent. Their heads are wide, and their eyes are lidless. Their limbs are underdeveloped and possess long, thin digits. Males are identified by their swollen cloacas lined with papillae, while females are noticeable for their wider bodies full of eggs. Three pairs of external gill stalks (rami) originate behind their heads and are used to move oxygenated water. The external gill rami are lined with filaments (fimbriae) to increase surface area for gas exchange. Four gill slits lined with gill rakers are hidden underneath the external gills. Axolotls have barely visible vestigial teeth which would have developed during metamorphosis. The primary method of feeding is by suction, during which their rakers interlock to close the gill slits. External gills are used for respiration, although buccal pumping (gulping air from the surface) may also be used in order to provide oxygen to their lungs. Axolotls have four different colours, two naturally occurring colours and two mutants. The two naturally occurring colours are wildtype (Varying shades of brown usually with spots) and melanoid (black). The two mutants colours are leucistic (pale pink with black eyes) and albino (golden, tan or pale pink with pink eyes).

Habitat and ecology
The axolotl is native only to Lake Xochimilco and Lake Chalco in central Mexico. Unfortunately for the axolotl, Lake Chalco no longer exists, as it was drained by humans to avoid periodic flooding, and Lake Xochimilco remains a diminished glimpse of its former self, existing mainly as canals. The water temperature in Xochimilco rarely rises above 20°C (68°F), though it may fall to 6 or 7°C (43°F) in the winter, and perhaps lower. The wild population has been put under heavy pressure by the growth of Mexico City. Axolotls are also sold as food in Mexican markets, and were a staple in the Aztec diet. They are currently listed by CITES as an endangered species, and by IUCN as critically endangered in the wild, with a decreasing population.
Axolotls are members of the Ambystoma tigrinum (Tiger salamander)-complex, along with all other Mexican species of Ambystoma. Their habitat is like that of most neotenic species - a high altitude body of water surrounded by a risky terrestrial environment. These conditions are thought to favor neoteny. However, a terrestrial population of Mexican Tiger Salamanders occupies and breeds in the Axolotl's habitat.

Axolotl's neoteny
Axolotls exhibit a property called neoteny, meaning that they reach sexual maturity without undergoing metamorphosis. Many species within the Axolotl's genus are either entirely neotenic or have neotenic populations. In the axolotl, metamorphic failure is caused by a lack of thyroid stimulating hormone, which is used to induce the thyroid to produce thyroxine in transforming salamanders. The genes responsible for neoteny in laboratory animals may have been identified, however they are not linked in wild populations, suggesting artificial selection is the cause of complete neoteny in laboratory and pet axolotls.
Unlike some other neotenic salamanders (Sirens and Necturus), Axolotls can be induced to metamorphose by an injection of iodine (used in the production of thyroid hormones) or by shots of thyroxine hormone. Another method for inducing transformation, though one that is very rarely successful, involves removing an axolotl in good condition to a shallow tank in a vivarium and slowly reducing the water level so that the axolotl has difficulty submerging. It will then, over a period of weeks, slowly metamorphose into an adult salamander. During transformation, the air in the vivarium must remain moist, and the maturing axolotl sprayed with a fine mist of pure water. The odds of the animal being able to metamorphose via this method are extremely small, and most attempts at inducing metamorphosis lead to death. This is likely due to the strong genetic basis for neoteny in laboratory and pet axolotls, which means that few captive animals have the ability to metamorphose on their own. Spontaneous metamorphosis has been known to occur very rarely, but attempts to do so artificially are best left to trained scientists. Artificial metamorphosis also dramatically shortens the axolotl's lifespan, if they survive the process. A neotenic axolotl will live an average of 10–15 years (though an individual in Paris is credited with achieving 25 years), while a metamorphosed specimen will scarcely live past the age of five. The adult form resembles a terrestrial Mexican Tiger Salamander, but has several differences, such as longer toes, which support its status as a separate species.

Use as a model organism
Animal testing

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Six adult axolotls (including a leucistic specimen) were shipped from Mexico City to the "Jardin des Plantes" in Paris in 1863. Unaware of their neoteny, Auguste Duméril was surprised when, instead of the axolotl, he found in the vivarium a new species, similar to the salamander. This discovery was the starting point of research about neoteny. It is not certain that Mexican Tiger salamanders were not included in the original shipment. The surviving neotenes are thought to be the ancestors of the majority of pet and laboratory axolotls in existence.
Vilem Laufberger of Germany used thyroid hormone injections to induce an axolotl to grow into a terrestrial adult salamander. The experiment was repeated by the Englishman Julian Huxley, who was unaware the experiment had already been done, using ground thyroid hormones. Since then, experiments have been done often with injections of iodine or various thyroid hormones used to induce metamorphosis.
Today, the axolotl is still used in research as a model organism and large numbers are bred in captivity. Axolotls are especially easy to breed compared to other salamanders in their family, which are almost never captive bred due to the demands of terrestrial life. One attractive feature for research is the large and easily manipulated embryo, which allows viewing of the full development of a vertebrate. Axolotls are used in heart defect studies due to the presence of a mutant gene that causes heart failure in embryos. Since the embryos survive almost to hatching with no heart function, the defect is very observable. The presence of several color morphs has also been extensively studied.
The feature of the salamander that attracts most attention is its healing ability: the axolotl does not heal by scarring and is capable of the regeneration of entire lost appendages in a period of months, and, in certain cases, more vital structures. Some have indeed been found restoring the less vital parts of their brains. They can also readily accept transplants from other individuals, including eyes and parts of the brain — restoring these alien organs to full functionality. In some cases, axolotls have been known to repair a damaged limb as well as regenerating an additional one, ending up with an extra appendage that makes them attractive to pet owners as a novelty. In metamorphosed individuals, however, the ability to regenerate is greatly diminished. The axolotl is therefore used as a model for the development of limbs in vertebrates.

Feeding
The axolotl is carnivorous, consuming small prey such as worms, insects, and small fish in the wild. In captivity, they can be fed a variety of readily available foods, including trout and salmon pellets, frozen or live bloodworms, earthworms, and waxworms on occasion. Axolotls also enjoy beef liver and sometimes small prawns. Beef heart is sometimes recommended, but is not a good choice for the animal as mammal proteins are not readily digestible. Small juveniles can be fed with Daphnia or brine shrimp until old enough for the larger foodstuffs. Axolotls locate food by smell, and will "snap" at any potential meal, sucking the food into their stomachs with vacuum force. This is why other animals may not be housed with axolotls (excluding adults with adults) as anything smaller will invariably end up in their mouths — even siblings. Fish can also nibble an axolotl's gill stalks and appendages while it is asleep, leading to infection.

Captive care and husbandry

Ambystoma mexicanum, albino specimens.
Axolotls live at temperatures of 14–20°C (54–68°F), preferably 17–18°C (62–64°F). Lower temperatures slow down their metabolism, although temperatures around 10°C (50°F) are a panacea when it comes to treating disease. Higher temperatures can lead to stress and increased appetite; use of a cooling aggregate is strongly recommended. Tapwater should be treated with a dechlorinator before the animal is introduced into it, as chlorine is harmful. Axolotls should be kept in a stable pH environment of between 6.5 to 8, with a slightly alkaline pH of 7.3 to 7.6 being the ideal. A single typical axolotl should be kept in a normal 10 U.S. gallon tank (44 litres) with around 150 mm (6 inches) of water. A power filter or underwater filter run by an airpump can be used, though water flow should be kept to a minimum to avoid stressing the animal. A 20% water change should be done every week, with debris being siphoned from the bottom. Small gravel should be avoided, as the axolotl can mistakenly ingest the rocks, leading to stress and gas. Floating plants should be provided for juveniles as a hiding place, and small caves should likewise be provided for adults. No light is necessary as axolotls are nocturnal. Axolotls will spend a majority of the time on the bottom of the tank (floating is a sign of stress and illness), so design accordingly.
In laboratory colonies, adult axolotls are often housed three to a one gallon container, and water changes are performed more regularly. Salts, such as Holtfreter's solution, are usually added to the water to prevent infection.

Cultural references

This article or section contains too many minor or trivial fictional references.Mere trivia, or references unimportant to the overall plot of a work of fiction, should be deleted. See also what Wikipedia is.
Aldous Huxley's After Many a Summer was inspired by his brother's experiments with Axolotls.
Argentine writer Julio Cortazar wrote a short story, Axolotl, in which the narrator, having long been obsessed with axolotls, becomes one.
It was often used in the early years of Mad magazine as a running gag and in-joke (along with others like Furshlugginer and Potrzebie). For instance, this parody of Wordsworth's "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud":
I wandered lonely as a clod,
Just picking up old rags and bottles,
When onward on my way I plod,
I saw a host of axolotls.
Bhob Stewart's blog Potrzebie is subtitled "Masquerade of the Albino Axolotls."
The axolotl is mentioned in the musical Children of Eden by Stephen Schwartz. In the aptly titled song called "The Naming", Adam and Eve run through a long list of animals that start with the letter "a", at one point mentioning the axolotl.
The fictional creatures Wooper and Quagsire, as well as Mudkip from the Pokémon franchise are all based on axolotls.
The central character (played by Bruno Ganz) in Alain Tanner's 1983 film In the White City is compared to an Axolotl because of his state of (spiritual) immobility.
The fictional Dr. Shrunk from Animal Crossing: Wild World is an axolotl. If talked to, he will grant you emotions to use in the game.
In Rene Daumal's book A Night of Serious Drinking there is an extended metaphor relating mankind to axolotls. He states that while an axolotl may be forced into maturity, man cannot be forced but must desire such a transformation.
The band Hum titled a song Afternoon With the Axolotls on their 1997 album Downward is Heavenward.
The webcomic 5ideways has a character that is referred to as "Axolotl"
In one page of the webcomic Dresden Codak, the main character, Kimiko “Thunderbolt” Ross tells the story of how in 1863, the French zoologist, Auguste Duméril was sent a shipment of Axolotls which had gone through the metamorphose process en route.
The artist 'Nautilis' has a 2002 electronica album entitled 'Are You an Axolotl' out on the record label 'Planet Mu'
The children's book, "Is it Hairy? Is it Scary?" features the Axolotl as one of the animals in the book.
The character Lycoris from the .hack//"Legend of the Twilight" manga has a haistyle based on the Axolotl, or as in mentioned in the manga, "Wooper Looper".
In Negima!?, Satomi Hasake's Suka form is an axolotl.
There is a song called "Axolotl" on Proto-Kaw's album, Before Became After.
Anna Reeves's short film The Imploding Self: A Journey Through the Life of Fergus McLafferty (1995) [1] features its title character with a pet axolotl, being allergic to all conventional pets, and he gradually starts to resemble one more and more. When he learns of axolotls being used as food in a country he plans to visit, he screams "cannibalism" and cancels his trip.

praktek timbang tulang...

anda dapat mencobanya sendiri....

bErAt tULang

Tradisi: Kalkulasi Timbang Tulang - by Petrus G.O

Pada saat seorang anak lahir dalam keluarga cina umumnya orang tua atau kakek/nenek menyimpan atau mencatat tanggal lahir lunar (imlek) anak tersebut. Biasanya yang paling mudah dilakukan adalah menyimpan sobekan tanggal imlek dari kalender. Dari tanggal lahir dapat dihitung ‘berat tulang’ berdasarkan tanggal, tahun, jam dan bulan. Berikut ini disajikan tabel cara menghitung ‘berat tulang’ yang dipercaya dapat memproyeksikan masa depan anak tersebut.


Setelah menjumlah berat-tulang dari jam, tanggal, bulan dan tahun lihat tabel di bawah untuk penafsiran berat-tulang tersebut (angka yang tebal menunjukkan berat-tulang dan teks di bawahnya adalah penafsiran):
2.2 Tangan dingin, tulang dingin, susahnya bukan main. Peruntungan ini mendorong jadi pengemis. Membanting tulang untuk melewati hari akhirnya secara membungkuk-bungkuk untuk hidup.
2.3Peruntungan ini tulangnya sangat ringan.Berusaha kerja, kerja pun susah jadinya. Sanak saudara, istri dan saudara susah diandalkan. Pindah ke lain kampung jadi gelandangan.
2.4Peruntungan ini tidak mendatangkan rejeki. Di halaman rumah tidak terdapat pohon yang berhasil. Seluruh saudara tidak dapat diandalkan. Pindah ke lain kampung malah jadi orang tua nganggur.
2.5 Nasib ini tidak dapat peninggalan harta warisan. Rumah tinggalnya seperti rumah kosong. Sanak saudara susah semua. Sepanjang hidupnya menanggung capai-lelah saja.
2.6Hidupnya berpakain saja susah payah. Berusaha terus-menerus tiada hentinya. Hingga pindah ke lain tempat, berdaya upaya akhirnya dapat berpakaian sekedarnya saja.
2.7 Sepanjang hidupnya bawa caranya sendiri saja. Tidak dapat leluhur untuk jadi sandaran. Dengan seekor kuda dan senjata pergi merantau. Dari muda hingga tua tidak dapat apa apa.
2.8 Sepanjang hidup melakukan kerja seperti tertiup angin. Harta benda dari leluhur seperti dalam impian. Walaupun di Kwe Pang atau ganti nama Marga dan Nama harus ganti dua sampai tiga kali.
2.9Umur muda batas nasib masih belum dirasakan. Lalu ada nama baik dapat jadi. Harus menunggu 4 tahun baru dapat berdiri sendiri. Pindah tempat menganti nama marga baru dapat diperbaiki.
3.0Capai lelah dihidup dalam susah. Lari ke Selatan dan ke Barat tidak istirahat. Kalau mao bersusah payah, bekerja yang rajin dan hemat pada hari tuanya tidak usah merasa sedih.
3.1Capai repot mencari dalam susah sampai pada waktu awan terbuka dan matahari terlihat. Sampai pada waktu awan terbuka dan matahari terlihat, karena sukar dapat pondasi untuk berdiri sendiri. Pada umur pertengahan makan pakaian perlahan-lahan tercukupi.
3.2 Waktu muda usaha sukar berhasil, perlahan lahan ada sumber seperti air yang mengalir. Sampai pada umur pertengahan makan pakai cukup. Nah, pada waktu itulah nama dan hasil dapat diterima.
3.3Pada waktu muda kerjapun sukar berhasil, segala daya upaya digunakan dengan kesungguhan hati. Begitu lama masih seperti air mengalir pergi, kemudian peruntungan bisa dapatkan keberuntungan.
3.4Peruntungan ini rejekinya tidak dapat diterka bagaimana. Di rumah banyak tersedia pakaian orang suci. Berpisah dari orang tua/ keluar rumah baru dapat menjadi baik. Akhirnya tokh akan berdoa Omitofo.
3.5Hari biasa ukuran rejeki tidak mencukupi, harta peninggalanpun tidak seberapa. Berusaha hanya hidup lumayan, tetapi begitu waktunya tiba makan dan pakai melebihi dari sebelumnya.
3.6Tak usah bercapai lelah untuk melewati hidup, karena memiliki buah keberuntungan tidak sedikit. Siang-siang telah ada bintang rejeki yang menyinari, ditanggung kau punya pergi segala usaha berhasil.
3.7Nasib ini segala apa susah terjadi. Bantuan adik & kakak sedikit sekali. Harus bekerja sendiri. Meski ada warisan dari orangtua datangnya terlihat perginya tidak ketahuan.
3.8Dalam hidupnya selalu mulia, siang siang masuk sekolah namamu tentu harum. Tunggu sampai umur tiga puluh enam, baju biru berganti baju merah.
3.9Peruntunganmu sampai tua tidak baik, meski capai kerja habiskan tenaga hasilnya kosong. Capai hati capai tenaga berusaha, akhirnya dapatnya seperti dalam impian.
4.0Walau hidupmu makan pakai sederhana, segala hal ada dalam hati dan tujuan yang tetap. Kesulitan yang lampau telah dilewati, tetapi akhirnya tentu dapat dirasakan kesenangannya.
4.1Hidupmu selalu tidak sama, anda harus bisa hidup melihat keadaan. Umur setengah tua dapat hidup seperti orang hartawan, pada awalannya tidak dapat dikatakan.
4.2 Dalam keadaan sulit ketemu kesulitan, buat apa terlalu disesalkan. Sampai pada umur pertengahan rejeki akan tiba. Nah, di waktu itulah segalanya akan terselesaikan.
4.3 Jadi orangnya hatinya mulia dan pintar, segala perkerjaan tentu dapat bantuan Kwi Jin. Pakaian bagus telah disediakan oleh Thian, tak usah capai capai hidupnya senang.
4.4 Segala urusan dari Thian tak usah diminta minta, harus tahu rejekimu mengandalkan dari orang lain. Waktu muda keuangan susah seperti yang diinginkan. Pada umur lanjut sudah pasti hidup senang.
4.5Keberuntungan anda akhirnya bagaimana, mula mula susah akhirnya membaik. Dalam hidup sukar memelihara anak lelaki maupun perempuan. Dari sanak saudara juga tak banyak bantuan
4.6 Timur, Barat, Selatan, Utara semua dijelajahi. Ganti nama marga dan pindah tempat kan merasa lebih baik. Makan pakai serba tidak kurang, sudah ditentukan oleh Thian. Pada umur setengah tua hingga tua sama saja.
4.7Nasib orang ini sudah tua baru senang, istri dan anak mulia memang sudah ditentukan. Sepanjang hidup memang ada murah rejeki. Sumber keuntungan ada seperti mata air.
4.8 Waktu muda peruntungan belum bisa didapat, tidak usah banyak pusing sama saja susah. Bersaudara 6 orang tidak ada yang dapat diminta bantuan, hidup sendiri kerja keras di hari tua barulah mendingan.
4.9Orang ini rejekinya tidak ringan, kerja sendiri, berdiri sendiri kemakmuran diambang pintu. Selain kaya mulia, semua orang menghormatinya. Dari pegawai rendah hingga tingkat karyawan tingkat tinggi semuanya selamanya tersedia.
5.0 Untuk hasil dan nama dilakukan dengan tekun, umur pertengahan rejeki banyak datang. Umur tua bintang kekayaan menyinari, tak usah dibandingkan dengan yang lampau karena sudah di depan mata.
5.1Seumur hidup serba mewah, urusanpun mudah. Tak usah capai capai rejeki dengan sendirinya datang. Kakak beradik, paman, keponakan semua akur. Rumah tangga, harta benda rejeki semua seperti yang diinginkan.
5.2Sepanjang hidup segala urusan dapat dilaksanakan, tak usah cape repot dan lelah dengan sendirinya berhasil. Dalam pergaulan dapat sambutan yang hangat, harta benda makmur memuaskan hati.
5.3 Ini orang rejekinya bagus, membangun rumah tangga dan harta ada di antaranya. Seumur hidup makan pakai sudah pasti. Jodoh seorang yang termasuk di kalangan orang yang kaya.
5.4Ini orang rejekinya makmur, kepintaran cukup & pekerjaan memuaskan. Pakai cukup makan cukup, kesenangan memuaskan. Betul-betul ialah seorang yang disebut seorang hartawan.
5.5 Melarikan kuda dengan pecut untuk mendapatkan nama baik, masih muda kerja baik dapat pujian orang. Pada satu soal rejeki datang sebagai sumber air, kekayaan kemuliaan mengharumkan seluruh sanak keluarga.
5.6Orang ini menjalankan susila dengan benar, seumur hidup sejekinya tak habis-habis. Manis, asam, pahit, pedas semua telah dicicipi, penghasilan dan kesenangan mengalir lalu tersimpan dengan aman.
5.7Rejekinya makmur segala hal dapat tercukupi, seumur hidup gembira mendapat anugerah Thian. Nama terkenal membuat orang ingin hidup seperti kemana ia mau pergi seperti Dewa.
5.8Seumur hidup makan pakai memang datang, nama & hasil keduanya lengkap, kaya & senang keduanya mengikuti. Nama & hasil setelah cukup, maka rejeki dan makmur akan mengikuti. Seperti memakai pakaian bagus, ikat pinggang dari batu giok, jalanpun di lantai emas.
5.9 Orang ini pintar dan berbudi, maka dapat sekolah tinggi hingga lulus. Tentu berada diantara orang orang bertitel, dengan pecut melarikan kuda mendapatkan nama harum.
6.0Lulus ujian disekolah mendapat nama baik, dapat meneruskan kemuliaan leluhur. Pakaian yang telah telah ditentukan tidak kurang sedikitpun. Sawah, kebun, uang, kain sutera, pokoknyasemuanya makmur.
6.1Tidak dapat berpangkat atau berpengaruh tetapi ditetapkan didunia sebagai orang kaya besar. Dengan kepintarannya semua kitab-kitab dapat dikuasai, dengan itu namanya harum dan agung karenanya.
6.2 Nasib ini rejeki tidak sedikit, sekolah tentu dapat gelar tinggi. Pakaian bagus, ikat pinggang emas dan berpangkat maka kaya dan mulia tidak ada yang menyamai.
6.3 Nasib ini kedudukan tinggi dan banyak rejeki, memiliki kekayaan, kemuliaan yang luar biasa. Nama terkenal, rumah bagus dan keharuman namanya tercium didunia.
6.4 Orang ini kekuasaannya tinggi tidak tertandingi, pakaian berpangkat duduk ditingkat yang tinggi. Kekayaan dan kemuliaannya tidak ada yang menyamainya, ternama dari dahulu hingga sekarang.
6.5Orang ini memiliki kekayaan, kemuliaan tidak kecil dan tidak ada yang dapat mengimbanginya. Dapat menentramkan negara, menyelamatkan kota, dan mengatur masyarakat maka nama harumnya terdengar kesuluruh pelosok.
6.6Orang ini berada di antara para hartawan, tumpukan emas dan permata memenuhi ruangan. Memiliki kekayaan yang dianugerahkan Thian, kedudukan dan nama harum termasyur mengharumkan sanak keluarga.
6.7Sejak lahir rejekinya telah tersedia, kebun, sawah, harta benda juga banyak. Selama hidupnya tidak pernah kurang berpakaian mewah, perjalanan hidupnya maju dikarenakan segalausaha mudah terlaksana.
6.8Kekayaan, kemuliaan tidak usah diminta karena sudah disediakan Thian, berlaksa emas, harta benda tidak usah diusahakan lagi. 10 tahun kemudian sudah tak dapat dibandingkan lagi, harta leluhur diumpamakan perahu diatas air.
6.9Orang ini tergolong dari bintang baju hijau, seumur hidupnya mewah karena kekayaannya sudahditakdirkan Thian. Banyak orang iri hati melihatnya, melewati hidupnya cukup senang dan memuaskan.
7.0 Orang ini rejekinya tidak ringan mengapa harus bersedih dan capai hati. Kekayaan, kemulian telah disediakan Thian, berpakaian yang bagus dan bertempat tinggal di gedung yang indah.
7.1Orang ini besarnya tidak sama seperti orang lain, bergaul di antara orang berpangkat sepanjang hidupnya sebagai seorang hartawan. Mewah, mulia, agung memang dasar bakatnya.